My Thoughts on Facebook

During the commercial break of a football game I was watching this past weekend, the segment where the top or "interesting" headlines of the upcoming news broadcast are announced in an attempt to get viewers to tune in, there was a headline dealing with Facebook. I didn't tune in to the full news story but the headline dealt with a woman who lost her health benefits because of her Facebook account that had pictures posted on it of her living it up and partying in what seemed to be in a bar setting. I hate reporting half truths or incomplete stories but in this case I feel the gist of the story is sufficient enough to make a point. Basically, this woman's indiscretions and bad judgment caused her to loose health benefits because her habits and essentially her life are on the net for all to see. How is that for coming back to bite her in the ass?

I don't have a Facebook, never had a Myspace, nor Twitter. I don't feel the need to place my life or activities for all to see. I too am a very private person and this has nothing to do with being ashamed or a fear of being transparent, its simply none of anyone's business what I do on my own private time. If I feel the need to see someone, I will call them and meet up for a cup of coffee. As far as meeting new people with similar interests, I feel there is so much to be said about meeting someone in person and having that initial handshake or establishing eye contact. I can’t help but feel that is such a great indicator of the type of person they are. Sometimes people hide behind computer screens and lead others to believe they are someone they really are not. We live in a world where anyone can keep tabs on anyone they choose to. God forbid someone get their hands on information they shouldn’t have or worst yet, manipulate the information for their own gain. I don’t have to tell you guys about cyber crime. And now you are telling me Facebook owns your information! I know I'm not the only one who has a huge problem with that.

Corporations have transformed yet they are still up to the dirty, low down, no good, self interest, profit only motivated same crab they have always been up to before. Having said that I will also say “To each his own” and “Proceed with caution.” I’m really not knocking anyone who may choose to be a part of these social networks and I’m aware of all the positive aspects. As a business owner, I’m aware of all the marketing possibilities that can be utilized by joining such networks. Luckily, I haven’t had to join yet in order to compete with other businesses. But I know the day is coming when I’m going to have to because my livelihood and survival might depend on it. But until that day, I think I will hold off.

"Stupid is as Stupid Does"

"Is Google Making Us Stupid?" is an article that asks a relevant question particularly when relating it to the ever-changing technologies of our time. At its basic findings, the article insinuates that the human brain functions according to the technology that is being utilized at the time. For example, Friedrich Nietzche's typewriter allowed him to communicate through typing because his failing vision curtailed his ability to write using pen and paper. According to a composer friend of his, this inevitably changed his style of prose to which Nietzche agreed, "You are right, our writing equipment takes part in the forming of our thoughts." The findings of the German media scholar Friedrich A. Kittler reaffirmed that Nietzche's prose, "changed from arguments to aphorisms, from thoughts to puns, from rhetoric to telegram style."

Another relevant example that is presented in the article is the mechanical clock, which came into use in the 14th century. The historian and cultural critic Lewis Mumford explains that the clock "disassociated time from human events and helped create the belief in an independent world of mathematically measurable sequences." The frame work that divided time became "the point of reference for both action and thought." Basically, the clock's methodical ticking allowed for the scientific mind to flourish but it took away the ability to listen to one's senses. That is, the clock decides when it’s "appropriate" to eat, to work, to sleep, to rise, or even to think. In order to escape from my sometimes overwhelming and constraining everyday reality, when on a vacation I don't wear a watch or carry a cell phone. I find myself for the first day or so still glancing at my bare wrist and I swear that I hear my cell phone ring tone when the cell phone is no where in the vicinity. This confirms two things for me. One, we have become slaves to the technology we have grown accustomed to. After reading this article the second thing that was confirmed which I have always suspected to be true but never encountered evidence to support is that our brains function according to the "intellectual technologies" that we surround our selves with.

Fredrick Winslow Taylor's studies of the choreographed mechanization of workers to produce maximum speed, efficiency, and output was adopted by the Industrial Revolution and still is in existence today in all aspects of manual labor and remains the ethic of industrial manufacturing today. At is basics, Winslow's system has restructured not only industry but society as a whole declaring that, "In the past the man has been first, in the future the system must be first." With the growing power of computers in our lives today, Taylor's system has begun to encompass the realm of the human mind as well. The Internet is constantly being changed and in the process changing the way information is collected and transmitted to become as efficient as possible. Our minds too are being transformed to work in a way that is in line with this changing technology.

Google's mission is to "systemize everything", to organize information and make it accessible and useful for widespread consumption. Furthermore, research is being done to create artificial intelligence to supplement or even replace our brains. I am reminded of a question my uncle, who coincidentally is named after the man who discovered algebra, used to ask me when I was a kid. He used to ask which is smarter the human brain or the calculator? I would look at him puzzled before he would answer by saying that the human mind created the calculator. A light bulb would go off in my head and I would think, "of course!" Somehow, I don't believe that neither his question nor his answer is as simple when applying it to computers and the Internet. Are we capable or creating technology that is smarter than us or is the technology we are creating shaping our minds to adapt to a new world order of consuming and producing knowledge? I think this is the question the article should be asking? Time will tell I suppose. But to humor Nicholas Carr and attempt to answer his question, "Is Google making us stupid?" I don't know if it is making us stupider or smarter because I don't believe those concepts are easily measured. One thing I believe it is doing is exposing us to an enormous amount of knowledge at a pace unrivaled in history, whether useless or useful I will leave for you to decide.

The Politics Behind the Digital Technology in Films

Not wanting to simply regurgitate for you guys what was being presented when I attended the 2009 Dennis Turner Memorial Lecture given by Professor Garrett Stewart, I was afraid I might have to because I couldn't think of anything to link it to something dealing with our class discussion. That is, until the very end when the question and answer session came about.

Just to give you a brief summary, the lecture was entitled “Cinema’s Digital Turn” and it dealt with the history of film and how in it's early days it stemmed from still photographs. The process of photography has been and continues to be included in the filming process today. He went on to describe the various ways of representing images and filming techniques from celluloid to computer generated animation to digital methods showing examples of each as he went along while reminding the listeners that such representations are symbolic. That is, cinema is a symbolic representation of images. Stewart went on to explain that the power of the viewer is incorporated into the filming process. This basically means that the viewer has the power to rewind, fast forward, and create a still frame. This process, he explained, is psychic as well as mechanical. This lead him to his over all point of how portable digital media, particularly hand held digital cameras, have changed the way films are produced as well as viewed. This refers to the fact that the audiences as well as the characters become viewers when examining films within films.

The concept of filming inside films allows the audience to see the film through the eyes of those characters doing the filming. This creates anachronisms within narratives, which refers to the discrepancy between the order of events in a story and the order in which they are presented in the plot. Anachronisms are basically flashbacks and flash forwards. He goes on to mention that this has been a cinematic trend of the last decade and a half citing movies like "The Valley of Elah" and "Jarhead" as examples of such methods. In both movies digital devices were used within the movies altering how we view films. This trend, as Stewart pointed out, has been more prevalent in films dealing with war and particularly terrorism. Real life soldiers have this technology available to them and this is depicted in these films giving the films elements similar to those of documentaries making them seem more real. Filming inside films also creates paranoia of surveillance as well as adding the element of a shapeless narrative or a purposelessness of the footage within the film. There isn't a plot in the films inside films, only a circle of violence and terrorism. This is a perfect example of using technology to make a political statement.

So what does all this mean when it comes to our purposes?

Someone asked the question if the technology in which films are made (celluloid or digital) makes a difference in how we view or interpret films? He mentioned that there are various ways we can express the written word listing some of the ways ranging from a pen, pencil, quilt pen, typewriter, to movable print. Does this change how we encounter or understand the written word? Recollecting our online discussion of last week's reading dealing with the studies of the National Endowment of the Arts, does the medium in which we encounter books make a difference when it comes to our reading of the text?

In her summary to our online discussion, Dr. Maruca stated:

How is this different? How do we know this it is different? Very little research has been done (some is just starting) on how screen reading might be different from paper reading. Is it a physical difference in cognitive processes, a behavioral one (linking and scanning), are we just talking about different genres of writing (posts vs. chapters, for example)—or are all of the above interconnected in convoluted and complex ways? The NEA, in its quest for simplicity and measurable outcomes, ignores this still nebulous area of screen reading, but with their assumption that what one does on the Internet is not reading, they basically exclude a large and growing category of literacy.

For films, as for the written word, there is no difference in the narrative or perhaps the meaning of the narrative, however there is a difference in how we experience the narrative. That in itself makes it different.


The following were handouts that were passed at the lecture.

Adult Literacy

Our group examined the document dealing with adult literacy designed for adult reading tutors. It is titled "Litstart" and it was published in 1990 here in Michigan as a product of Michigan Literacy, Inc. The document contains various writing strategies designed for adults of various levels of writing capabilities. In a section which seems to be aimed towards beginner adult writers, the document's purpose states, "In order to function in today's society, it is necessary to be able to communicate in a written form" and it goes on to list various means of written communication which included a note to a child's teacher, a job application, a check, or a grocery list. The document emphasizes that adults should be able to write in both manuscript as well as cursive forms depending on the situation as it concentrated on introducing penmanship to the students. It claims that the goal of adult penmanship is legibility regardless of personal style. This section contained in it various exercises and tips that are similar to those given to beginner grade school students developing writing skills for the first time such as tracing large examples of letters in order to visualize the form. It recommended that a pencil is used at first then later exercises can be copied in ink for the obvious reason of allowing for mistakes to be erased. The document also stated that exercises should be limited to ten minutes because beginning writers may experience fatigue and hand cramps. This section recommends that students are shown various writing samples from real life and encouraged to select a model to follow encouraging them to practice often.

In later sections designed for more advanced writers, strategy 32 entails of keeping a journal in order for a record of the progress of the student to exist. The mission of this exercise is to show that writing has the purpose of communicating thoughts and ideas. This exercise is interactive in that it allows both student and tutor to discuss and agree upon a question that they both write about in a journal for their next meeting at which point the journals are exchanged and read by the other party. Exposing the students to their tutor's style of writing can be beneficial in allowing for the development of a writing style through the sampling and adopting of another's. One thing that struck me as peculiar is that spelling errors are to be ignored unless the student is interested in working on specific words.

As proclaimed in the document, the mission of these exercises is to be able to function in a society by developing a writing style that allows for communication through the written form. Spelling words correctly is vital in this process. In the document, a job application is listed as an example of written communication. In my line of work, I review many job applications. There are many qualities that can be inferred about the applicant from simply reviewing their job application. Writing style, neatness, and spelling are among the things I take into consideration when reviewing an application. The way an applicant communicates through writing often expresses their ability to communicate to the clients. Neatness of the writing often speaks volumes about the applicant's organizational skills as well as their ability to keep a clean and presentable work environment. Spelling words correctly is indicative of the applicant's attention to detail. If I reviewed two applications where the applicants had similar credentials and an equal amount of experience but one applicant incorrectly spells some words, I am more likely to call the other applicant for an interview first.

It is difficult for me to imagine that an adult is unable to function in a society because of their lack of writing skills. I feel that adults naturally develops certain skills that may or may not be as advanced as the skills of other adults that have superior writing skills that allow the former to function in their lives. A mother lacking in writing skills who goes grocery shopping may not have a grocery list that can be understood by anyone else except for her because of her inferior writing skills, however she is still able to make sense of the list and is able to complete the task. Perhaps, her inability to communicate through writing has allowed her to develop a superior ability to remember things. My point here is as human beings we learn to adapt and develop other skills that compensate for the skills we lack. The document's claim that one needs to be able to communicate in a written form in order to function in today's society can possibly alienate and discourage those who have been functional in their lives making them feel inadequate. Instead, the tutorial should emphasize that developing writing skills allows adult students to excel as apposed to simply function in a culture. This takes away the notion that any sort of value judgment is being passed on adults attempting to reach a certain level of literacy and marginalize less of those adult students who may have feelings of inadequacy.

There exist literacies that are emphasized in the document that are in line with C.H. Knoblaugh's definitions of the various literacies. The functionalist perspective is one that can be attributed to the document dealing with adult literacy. The functionalist argument emphasizes preparing people for the necessities of life through the transmission of ideas by developing certain basic skills. Cultural literacy may not automatically be developed through simply developing superior writing skills. However, it allows for adult students to become a step closer to achieving cultural literacy. This perspective entails more than a technical proficiency such as processing a writing skill. Instead, that literacy ought to include a cultural awareness of heritage and a capacity for a higher order of thinking that can be achieved through reading critically and other language practices. The literacy for personal growth perspective is definitely one that is echoed through the document dealing with adult literacy. This argument promotes the progress of society through the advancement or empowerment of the individual. The critical literacy perspective which emphasizes a high level of critical consciousness is not one that is emphasized in the adult literacy document.

According to Knoblaugh, the concept of literacy is embedded in the ideological disposition of those who attempt to enforce it as a social requirement. As adults, these students make the decision to enroll in these courses. That is, no one can force them to participate in the process to achieve a certain level of adult literacy. Regardless, this can be a sensitive process because the cultural politics assume that the ones with the power are those who possess this literacy. In order for this process to be a successful one, it needs to be culturally, sociologically, economically, as well as educationally sensitive so it does not marginalize any one person or group. If the goal of adult literacy is to promote civic responsibility as well as personal growth to improve social and political change, making every attempt to insure that active participation is encouraged and that every adult lacking in literacy skills on one level or another actively seeks to achieve it. A literacy movement that excludes or marginalizes a certain group is one that is doomed to fail. This is like having a feminist movement that excludes women of color or a movement to eliminate racism but excluded certain minority groups.

Dr. Seuss is Political? The Cat is a Communist??

On my nieces' second birthday, my gift to her was a series of Dr. Seuss books. She received the first eight all at once and the rest would arrive once a month for the next six months or so. I had them mailed to my home and when they arrived I would take them with me to my parents’ house for Sunday dinner where the whole family gets together. After dinner, I would read to her in an attempt to spend some quality time and form a bond with my only niece. She would get so excited and that brought me all the joy and satisfaction in the world. I didn't get why she would get so excited and dismissed it as one of those things kids get excited about because they are kids. You see, that was my first full exposure to Dr. Seuss because I was already ten years old when my family migrated to the United States and I never had that first hand experience your typical child growing up in American culture would have. Nevertheless, I was still aware of Dr. Seuss's place in American culture or at least I thought I did until reading Cat People: What Dr. Seuss Really Taught Us.

To be completely honest, even reading Dr. Seuss (Theodor Geisel) as an adult to my little niece I figured someone would interpret in it some sort of subliminal messages or at least the potential of some sort of hidden sexual or Freudian agenda that psychoanalysts can take and run away with, but not to the scope introduced by Louis Menand's article. To place Dr. Seuss along side Noam Chomsky and Claude Levi-Strauss is an interesting concept for me. I didn't know when Dr. Seuss first appeared on the scene (1957) and even if I had, I would have never made the connection to the Cold War and the book's political agenda. In his article, Menand mentions the social conditions that existed post World War II that created a need for the baby boomers to develop at a rate that can compete educationally with that of European children, particularly Russian children. Thus, we have the National Defense Education Act of 1958 which pumped some of the military spending dollars into the educational system that would revive interests among young people who were perceived as being made "vicious and stupid" by the commercial culture as well as by televisions that made their way to 72% of American homes by 1956. Dr. Seuss books as a phonics tool used to introduce children to word sounds would inevitably play a part in teaching them reading faster than they were accustomed to.

In the Dana Nelson Salvino chapter, The Word in Black and White: Ideologies of Race and Literacy in Antebellum America, it is mentioned that there exists a reciprocal relationship between literacy and culture. She mentions, "...along with learning how to read, students also learned what to read" (142). She goes on to discuss literacy in terms of the democratization process as well as listing it as a tool for differentiation. That is, literacy created a subordination or a hierarchal social order of sorts. She also mentions the relationship between education and the citizenry of those being educated and the social ideals that were created during the educational process. Somehow, knowing that the historical context of which Salvino was examining is different than that of Menand, the message is the same. Both view literacy, regardless of the time period they are attempting to examine, as a politically charged concept. Evidently, this concept is deeply rooted in the psyche of the minds of those living in the various eras. For the baby boomers, Dr. Seuss may have been an invention of their social conditions in a response to some political agenda. For my niece it is just another colorful book that her uncle read to her and that is just fine with me.

Generations of Literacy

Just like my definition of "the book" has been complicated or enhanced by this course so has my definition of "literacy" as a result of this weeks readings. For me, and perhaps for most, literacy can be summed up as the ability to read and write. The readings this week introduced among other things new ways to look at literacy. In Literacy and the Politics of Education, C.H. Knoblauch says it best when he makes the claim, "Literary means many things to many people" (122). Different disciplines contribute different ways of looking at literacy. Furthermore, literacy is not simply a condition or a state of being literate or illiterate. According to Patricia Crain it is a "galvanizing cultural concept" that is expressive of many factors ranging from nativism, sexism, racial, social, economic, political, and so on. Literacy is also affected by languages, dialects, different forms of communication media, locations of cultural production, and other social, cultural, and technological tools as well as restraints.

According to Crain, literacy came into currency in the late 19th century in or around 1883 and it originated as an antithesis to illiteracy. From a historical perspective, this was somewhat surprising to me when we think of the history of texts and the written word. I would have imagined that the 16th century and the introduction of the printing press would have brought into light advancements in the study of literacy at least in terms of a sociological study. For different societies in history, literacy had different meanings which were restricted by class and racial hierarchies. For fifth century BC Athenian gentry, the possession of literacy was assumed and it meant being cultured. For medieval European clergy it meant being educated in Latin. At its' basic definition, in modern times literacy encompasses all things associated with reading and writing of a standard language of the culture one lives in. For us, although not limited to this definition, it means being able to read, write, and communicate in the English language.

With advances in digital and hypermedia technology, the concept of literacy will expand to include or exclude those who may or may not be proficient in this new technology. As an intricate part of achieving literacy, one must have access to literacy. Being a student at Wayne State University on and off since 1995, I have been witness to the changes and shifts from traditional methods of education that included books, paper, pen, chalkboard, chalk, and over head projectors to e-books, laptops, and media stations. These changes have began to shape our access to knowledge and will undoubtedly continue to do so changing with it how we view, understand, and achieve literacy. John Buschman says it best when he claims,

"It is widely argued, however, that the electronic-and now digital-world has disrupted any unitary notion of literacy per se because these advanced technologies have 'simultaneously broadened and splintered [it] into many literacies." (96)

These advances of course will create a gap between those who can access this technology and those whose socioeconomic conditions will not allow them to gain access to this new form of achieving literacy. This gap would become larger not only within first world nations but also between the technologically superior nations and the rest of the world.

While doing the reading this week, particularly the Knoblauch reading, I couldn't help but think of the different degrees of literacy that exist within my own family. My sister, my mother, and my grandmother represent three generations of various degrees of literacy. My grandmother does not read or write not even in her native Arabic language. She is of a primary oral culture. She can recite verses from the Quran which she has committed to memory, she can tell stories and sing folk songs, some of her children went on to graduate college, and in her day she was the norm among women within that culture. My mother is a high school graduate who can read and write in both the Arabic and English languages although her formal education was only in Arabic. She learned the English language mainly through picking it up from her children, conversations with the English speaking public, and through television, mainly through soap operas out of all things where proper English is spoken and done so in a slow fashion allowing for comprehension. She is now taking courses to prepare her for the TOEFL exam that would allow her to take college courses. My sister on the other hand is able to read and write in both Arabic and English and she just graduated with a doctorate degree.

I bring this example up with Knoblauch's Literacy and the Politics of Education in mind. According to the definitions of literacy we have encountered in this week's readings, for all practical purposes, grandma is illiterate. My mother can fall under the functionalist perspective, cultural literacy model, and is currently in the process of achieving the literacy-for-personal growth perspective. My sister falls under all those arguments and with a little stretching of the definition of the critical literacy perspective, she can be included in that argument as well as she is able to understand and have a critical consciousness of the dominant structures that exist within the language of our culture.

Misquoting God!

I wasn't sure what to expect when I attended the talk given by Vanessa Jill DeGifis titled Scripture and Pious Rhetoric in Abbasid Politics. Like most, I have my preconceived notions before entering any situation. Being of Arab descent and also having what I consider to be a reasonably good understanding of the Islamic faith as well as an understanding of both the history of the region and its politics, I was definitely interested and at the same time curious. To be completely honest, my initial reaction was that the person giving the talk does not have a name that sounds Arabic or Islamic. Naturally, I next wondered about the credentials of the speaker and under what authority other than that of an academic one (as if that wasn't enough) was she speaking. In the past, when hearing talks dealing with religion, they were normally given by members of the clergy of that particular religion or guest speakers who were either of that particular faith, other faiths, or people that converted religions. I have even heard debates between members of different faiths as well as atheists and agnostics. Needless to say, the speakers were not always very objective when presenting their views so I was really looking forward to hearing a fresh perspective from an academic stance and I wasn't disappointed.

Having said that, I would like to add a few points about historical perspectives. Those reporting about history, particularly the history of the other, have a Western notion of thinking about that history. There exists a cultural difference between the two societies where common practices as well as ways of thinking about those practices are inherently different. This undoubtedly contributes to the legitimacy of the argument as well as the authenticity of the historical perspective. This doesn't necessarily make the argument right or wrong, it just makes it different. Having the privilege of being familiar with both cultures and in turn both ways of thought, I feel my life is evidence enough that there exists a difference between how information is processed and interpreted between the two cultures.

DeGifis's premise for her argument was the use of scripture by political figures for the purposes of political gain. She discussed the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun use of quranic rhetoric in a letter (833 CE) to his governor. In this letter, al-Ma'mun seems to be drawing parallels between himself and the prophets. As suggested by DeGifis, he uses the Quran as a demonstrative method to justify his authority and his political stance, ostracize his opponents, and implement the mihna (which means occupation as in "work" but she uses a different definition of the word that I'm not aware of and that is "inquisition"). His prose does not appear in the Quran but it gives the impression that it does. By adopting or borrowing quranic prose, he is able to bolster the potency of his voice and blur the lines between his words and the Quran. Invoking the Quran in his letter enables him to demonstrate his competency of deciphering the text and gives the impression that the Quran is steering his policies. This is a classic example of politics using accepted rhetoric to establish its' authority. We see this being done by extremists and fanatical groups today as justification for their policies.

What needs to be understood here is that for Muslims Islam is not simply a religion, it is a way of life. The Quran is widely accepted as the true and final word of God. In the Quran, one can find examples of ethical and moral values, scientific knowledge, historical accounts, and common everyday practices like physical hygiene. There is even a whole chapter devoted to the rights of women. However, like any other text this information is interpreted differently by scholars and individuals alike. There exists textual evidence that clearly states one is not permitted to interpret and use the Quran for personal gain or convenience. But like I stated before, Islam is a way of life for Muslims and the religion intersects and intertwines with every aspect of society and culture, even politics.

Invoking religious rhetoric or the "God is on our side" argument is a common practice even in our political arena here in the West. From a personal perspective, I have come to an understanding that religion is a personal relationship between a person and the object of their worship, whoever or whatever that may be or even if such an object exists. There is very minimal room for religion in politics and vice versa. However, the political spheres of the world can learn and adopt some ethical and moral values from all the religions in the world. It is my belief that there exists a common ground we as a human race can stand on when it comes to personal beliefs no matter how different we think we are. We only seem to highlight minor and at times insignificant differences to justify our beliefs and objectives. Our values may differ from culture to culture but we should be able to find common beliefs as a human race. Arab and Islamic politicians are no different than any other politician in the world. They are just as susceptible to abusing the privilege of their positions as any one else in the same situation no matter how "democratic" their political process may be.

Aside...

I also wanted to add that I took notice of a sermon like tone of voice demonstrated by the speaker at certain points during her speech. Her body language and hand gestures were reminiscent of a religious figure standing at a pulpit delivering a sermon. I was wondering if anyone who attended caught that as well. I don't know what to make of that. It could be because she felt it was appropriate considering the subject matter or maybe that it gave a certain authority to her argument. Or it could be simply her style of speech making.

These are supplemental handouts that were passed out illustrating examples from the al-Ma'mun's letter and how closely it resembled actual text from the Quran.

The following is somewhat related. It is an example of politics trying to impose on the religious beliefs of the people.

http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20091102/lf_nm_life/us_egypt_niqab

History Repeats Itself: More Thoughts on My Final Paper

"Those who don't know their history are doomed to repeat it."

This, as well as other quotes are constantly being repeated in my head. Some stick with me and some get pushed to the back-burner until I encounter something that triggers a chain of thoughts, and suddenly those quotes take on a new meaning. I believe this holds true in this case as well.

I feel that the Internet and other digital media will take human kind to parameters that exceed even those of the printing press. The printing press did wonders for literacy but we already, for the most part, have literacy. If Deibert's argument is correct regarding creating a middle class, a new sense of the individual, nation-states, or a new world order then today's innovations will take us even further.

I propose that we are heading towards a homogenization of the masses. Borders between countries will become blurred on a regional level and then on a world level. This is different than Deibert’s notion that the printing press contributed in creating national boundaries. Communities will be viewed in a totally different and progressive way. The Internet has created a cyber community where my little brothers can play videogames with kids in every corner of the world as long as they have access to a computer and an Internet connection. This wasn’t possible fifteen years ago. I’m reminded of a Coca Cola advertising mission statement or maybe it was even a slogan. It went something like a Coca Cola at arm’s length away from every human. Who or what institution would attempt to monopolize or at least have controlling interests of the Internet and make it at arm’s length away from every human. This is powerful and it’s the corporate mentality I’m interested in here. Would anyone be able to have that control in today’s world? The human race of today is not the same as that of the 16th century. We are more knowledgeable and hopefully smarter to allow that to happen. Or are we? Have we learned from our history? Will we continue to be consumed with becoming consumers? This takes me to economics. Local economic markets will compete with a global market leading to the development of a world currency. We see evidence of this in Europe with the Euro. What does this communicate about the selling of services as opposed to tangible products? What does it communicate about marketing?

Our studies lead us to the understanding that language preserves culture. However, there is a movement towards a common language in the world as we see more and more languages become extinct (examine the development of language from 35,000 BC until today). Will future generations become fluent in a few dominant languages or will they adopt one common language? What does this mean about preserving our history? How will future generations recall the history of the world? We are definitely better at preserving history or at least the evidence of history than ever before. Will we be able to avoid war and thus destroying that evidence? If there is war, what would it be fought over and how would it be fought? Biologically perhaps, or maybe even technologically since we are becoming more and more dependent on technology. What better way to cripple an infrastructure than attack the way it is built from the ground up. Should we even become so dependent on this technology we created?

I don’t know if I even want to take on the future of religion or that of religious thought. But today, I attended the talk Scripture and Pious Rhetoric in Abbasid Politics, which was given by Vanessa DeGifis and a question was asked at the end of the talk that got a few chuckles from the audience. The person stated that the three major religions came in succession, first Judaism, then Christianity, then Islam. He went on to ask if eventually there would be a common religion among the masses that encompassed the thought of all three? I don’t even recall how she answered the question or if there is an answer for such a question, but it made me think about what I have been contemplating regarding my research topic. Are we, as a human race heading towards a common religion that encompasses the ideals of all three? What is to become of Buddhism and Hinduism since nearly 40% of the world’s population is either Chinese or Indian? There exists a sentiment that many worship the almighty dollar. Are the two related? It’s no accident that the Roman Catholic Church was and still may be the wealthiest institution in the world. Maybe future generations will become without religion or perhaps they will worship a giant computer.

I have officially gone crazy, or maybe not. I’m sorry to burden you with all this and I realize I ask more questions than I answer. The truth of the matter is that I don’t have the answers, only my own way of thinking about the answers. I am flying off on too many tangents here but I can’t help but think that they are somewhat connected. Exploring many possibilities helps me in narrowing down what I want to write about. I’m simply thinking out loud or putting thoughts on paper. I do know this, the world is changing and it is changing at a pace faster than ever before. One only needs to examine the 20th century and the advancements that occured there compared to the rest of the history of the world to have proof of this. The answers to our future lies somewhere in the past.

Research Paper Topic Possibility

My senior year English course in high school required a research paper. My topic was radio drama and factors leading to its demise. The answer of course was the invention of television and making it available to the masses. I bring this up because I feel it relates to our discussion of technology replacing other technology just as in the printing press replacing the written word and in the process reshaping the way we view culture. It's also important to point out that cultures set preconditions that create a need for technological advances and in turn technology allows for new levels of sophistication to be reached within cultures. Following this frame of thinking, it's clear that culture and technology are related to one another.

As pointed out by Ronald J. Deibert, the concepts of culture and technology worked symbiotically. In Parchment, Printing, and Hypermedia: Communication in World Transformation, he makes a very compelling argument explaining the cosmology of the world. He asserts that communication technology, specifically the invention of the printing press, was a leading factor in breaking up the hegemony of the Church over medieval society ushering in the modern world order. Deibert points out the social conditions that gave rise to the Church as an institution of power and then the social conditions that created the need for technological innovations that lead to the brake down of the power structure of the medieval world.

Following Deibert's argument, this really got me thinking about other technological breakthroughs particularly those having to do with knowledge, communication media, and the book as we have explored it in this course. Immediately, my attention went to the introduction of the Internet and related digital media. Just like the printing press was a major contributor in changing the cosmology of the world, the Internet has already changed and continues to be changing how we look at our world today. The Church in medieval society owned and controlled communication by controlling knowledge and information in the form of the written word. In today's world, big media corporations own and control our world by controlling our access to information. Corporations like News Corp control the news and our access to it. Not only does it report what they see fit but we as a culture have to be consumers and pay to access their potentially biased information. I use the term biased because naturally such corporations are invested in preserving the dominant structures by which the world exists. Anything that would be potentially threatening to their model of power can be simply suppressed or manipulated in their favor. As pointed out by the film we viewed in class, Rip! A Remix Manifesto, a few companies own 90 percent of media holdings in America.

In my research paper, I will attempt to draw parallels between the institutions that controlled communication technology in the 16th century and in today's world. Furthermore, I will examine the cultural and social conditions that allowed for corporations to come to their position of power. Following Deibert's model, I will also examine the conditions that created the need for the invention of the Internet and other digital media. As pointed out earlier, culture and technology are directly related. Culture shapes and is constantly being shaped by technological innovations. Finally, I will point out the ways our world has been transformed and continues to change in response to the technology and its need to exist.

Leaving a Lasting Impression

Every year around the holidays when people make new years resolutions, I actually take the time to write some of mine down. I make what I like to call one year plans as well as five year plans. One of my favorite things to say is that air or oxygen is free. By this I mean, anyone can say anything they want to say anytime they wish to say it. I always found that committing things down on paper gives words a certain authority even if only for personal value. My little ritual helps me hold myself accountable for what I set out to accomplish every year. It also aids me in revisiting the frame of mind I was in every year I sit down to write these plans.

When reading Hamlet's Tables and the Technologies of Writing in Renaissance England, I couldn't help but think of the permanence of words. Orality, from what we learned can be very powerful in transmitting knowledge. The written word however, has a greater power of transmitting knowledge not only in its content but also in a historical context as well. To go even further, writing utensils also give a certain level of authority. Using pen versus pencil communicates a different message and speaks volumes on the permanence of text. I always liked using erasable ink pens because I felt they gave a more permanent notion of authority than pencils did and allowed for the freedom to erase and replace words without crossing out or scribbling over words when mistakes are made.

Reading Shakespeare and the Book introduced the concept of the author as well as the medium when thinking about the written word. This is where it got really interesting for me considering Shakespeare was written with the intention of being performed. All sorts of things are coming to play here in understanding "books" and the written word.

Not to leave out anything from last weeks readings, I would like to add about the typography pieces that technology allows us to be lazy. This doesn't necessarily mean that it’s a bad things or a good thing. Technology is supposed to simplify life. Maybe we read less elaborate type of printing easier because it’s easier to read. Reading more elaborate print type requires more of a concentration and work. It’s far less practical to use that type of print for everyday life operations. But like we mentioned, it’s a situational thing and when deemed appropriate I think more artistic print type can add to the aesthetics of the text as well as its content.

What Came First, The Chicken or The Egg??? Understanding Ronald J. Deibert

Imagine if AT&T just took over all forms of communication. They took over the accumulation and distribution of everything from wireless devices to cable television to Internet services to even landlines. Lets go on to say that with possessing all that power, and reaching unlimited financial stability, the big shots at AT&T preceded to place limitations on what, where, why, or how we use the technology they provide in an attempt to preserve the hierarchical order that places them at the top. The only way we would be able to communicate to one another without going through AT&T would be through face to face interaction. Globalization as we know it would be redefined and achieved through one institution. That is simply too much power for one institution to possess.

In my last blog, while discussing Johannes Trithemius, I mentioned some of my problems with organized religion using guilt and preying on people’s fears to set themselves as an authority. Needless to say, such an institution, or any institution for that matter, should not have a monopoly on anything let alone having one on something as important as knowledge. Ronald J. Deibert calls this "a monopoly of the production of knowledge." Knowledge is a successive process and is built upon with other knowledge through the various communication mediums. In essence, the Roman Catholic Church controlled a significant means of communications by controlling the technology that is the written word. In today's age, a scenario like the one I mentioned is highly improbable which makes the Church's hegemony over the medieval world that much more significant in the grand scheme of things.

Deibert mentions the assumption that as far back as 35,000 years humans have been able to communicate the spoken word in some capacity. Subsequently, a crude form of writing through representations and images was developed 32,000 years ago. Deibert calls this, "...graphic system of writing duplicating the linguistic one." The development of writing was the next breakthrough, but not until 3500 B.C. This lead to literacy but not until worldwide accessibility to the written word was made possible by the printing press. This process points out that the world has always moved towards globalization from early humans 35,000 years ago. This is still a work in progress today as the human race still finds communication technology to make the world we live in smaller and more accessible with each new invention. Whether it’s writing, printing, the telegraph, the telephone, the radio, television, or the Internet, we have found ways to communicate, store, and transfer knowledge allowing us to build on what we already know. Deibert goes on to mention the various social conditions that allowed for the dominant power structure of the medieval world to be created leading cultures to seek change through technology. He asserts that the development of the printing press was an agent in causing social change in pushing towards secularism leading to the developing of centralized state bureaucracies and eventually the nation state as we know it today.

As we discussed in class, this brings to the table the question of culture and technology. Which element leads to the development of the latter? Is it culture or social pressures that lead to the development of technology? Or is technology responsible for creating certain social conditions? For Deibert, the two concepts are symbiotic with each leading to the development of the other. In short, cultures set preconditions for the development of the technology and in turn the technology allows for new levels of sophistication to be reached within cultural conditions. One cannot exist without the other.

Johannes Trithemius: Preserving a Way of Life

Johannes Trithemius, in In Praise of Scribes, seems to be fearful of losing a way of life that he has become accustomed to. With technological advancements, there is always a sentiment of eliminating the old and ushering in the new. The fifteenth century introduced the printing age and presented a new challenge to the work of scribes. Printing posed the problem of eliminating the work of scribes for a more efficient, more productive way of doing things brought forth by printing from movable type. Trithemius desperately tries to be persuasive using a number of arguments to convince monks that the work of scribes is of great importance.

My problem with religion has always been that it relied heavily on instilling fear and guilt to win the devotion of its subjects. Trithemius' argument follows the same line of thinking. He starts off by invoking God claiming that scribes are promised "eternal life in glory" if their work is true. He goes on to elevate scribes and their work into glorious, even holy, status by referring to scribes as "heralds of God". Next, he claims that idle monks or those who don't fulfill their obligation of copying are acting against the injunctions of the apostle, the church, and God. He seems to be threatening to take away meal privileges and accusing idle monks of living "badly" challenging their identity and accusing them of dishonesty and insincerity. Just like good cop/bad cop, he reverts back to appealing to the senses of obligation to their work and devotion to God.

Trithemius goes on to spend some time attempting to convince his readers that the work of a scribe is worthwhile because it help to keep the mind off lustful desires. This would invariably anger God and go against his will. His will in turn would never be known if it wasn't for the work of scribes alluding to the importance of their work. It's very clear that Trithemius feels that monks are suited for such work. Their life and lifestyles are fitting for such work insisting that scribes are as, if not more important than preachers. He does make a good point here in that if it wasn't for the written word, the endurance of knowledge and information for future generations would not be possible. Trithemius closes his argument by insisting that scribes continue their work in spite of printing. He suggests that copying printed works helps in preserving them by guaranteeing their permanence since parchment is lasts longer than paper.

The traditionalist in me feels bad for Trithemius. The printing age threatened to make his way of life extinct. In Praise of Scribes is Trithemius' attempt to preserve this way of life, the only way he seems to know how to exist. I don't deny that scribes were important in helping us know about the past. I would even give credit to the aesthetic value of anything produced by hand rather than by machine. However, at the end of the day my practical side seems to prevail over my sentimental side. We are but too familiar with this concept in today’s world. We often see the work of man be replaced by machines in the industrial world taking away that personal touch. I guess that will always be a draw back and a price to pay in favor of advancement and moving forward.

State of the Web Report: Paper, Leather, Clay & Stone

Part I

Paper, Leather, Clay & Stone: The Written Word Materialized

Maryterese Pasquale-Bowen
D. Fairchild Ruggles

http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Paper-exhibit/Default.html

My definition of books as they relate to book studies has been modified, challenged, stretched, maybe even altered, since the beginning of this course. A big part of understanding books involves understanding the written word or text. The written word has been recorded in a variety of ways and on a variety of materials throughout history. The web site Paper, Leather, Clay, and Stone explores ways the written word has been documented and also the vehicle or material it was documented on making it possible to endure in time giving us an understanding of book history. In other words, the site explores the physical context of written text and it does so through eleven sections that discuss materials, function, significance, and the relationship written text has with its readers.

The first three sections of the site discuss various materials written words were recorded on before paper. Such surfaces include stone (5th century BC), clay (late 3ed, early 2nd century BC), coins (1st century), and wood (as early as 3ed century). The Book of the Dead (332-30 BC) in section two, presents an example of papyrus as a writing surface and its significance to ancient Egyptians illustrating the magical power of words and images in including such a text in burial practices. The third section illuminates how the shortage of papyrus lead to the discovery of parchment (2nd century BC) and eventually paper. Parchment was made from processed goat skin made smooth for writing. Paper, like papyrus, is made from plants like flax or cotton and was first developed in China, spread through Islamic lands to northern Africa and into Europe to eventually reach the Mayans in Mexico. The introduction of parchment and paper impacted the appearance as well as the quantity of texts produced because both materials can be made into codices, or book-like formats, allowing for the accommodation of illustrations and decorations. With the development of paper, the role and function of texts to cultures would never be the same. Tree bark as well as tree leaves presented other examples of surfaces texts were recorded on in the Americas and in the Himalayan regions, as well as in India and in Southeast Asia.

The next six sections deal with the function of written texts. Section four explores books of religious content and how they are elevated to a position of special cultural significance. Such books were very elaborate in their physical presentation. They were decorated with precious materials and were highly guarded alluding to their magnificence and importance to their respective cultures. Next, we are presented with The Lombard Gradual, which unlike most medieval books that were designed for private use, had a public function. It was used by choirs of monks, friars, or nuns for chant during portions of mass. Once again, like the religious books of the previous section, these books represented an act of devotion and hence were extravagant in their production. Section six suggests the revolutionizing of the written word with the introduction of printing. Printing made it possible to mass produce texts quickly and cheaply satisfying the demand for knowledge brought forth by the Renaissance, inflaming the popularity of the reformation, and ushering the age of information. Examples of the various forms of the Bible are presented here to highlight the transition from manuscript to print. Section seven, The Repository of Knowledge, deals with the collecting and organization of large bodies of knowledge. Encyclopedia Maxima and Encylopedie are presented as examples in this section. The eighth section proposes ways of communicating law and identity by achieving a certain level of authority through recording legal status and conferring identity. The examples presented here are patents of nobility and tombstones. The section titled The Book Preserves the Past discusses how books have the ability to capture a certain sentiment of their time as well as their ability to preserve it. The examples here imply a fascination with history as well as understanding a notion of the past. These two concepts are absorbed in order to preserve time and also to create a new representation of the written word.

The final two sections discuss the relationship texts have with their readers as well as the role institutions of power had in influencing the readers of such texts. Section ten discusses the attempts by religious and secular institutions to contain and suppress the written word on seditious or immoral grounds. Censorship in its various forms is explored in this section using such examples as Index Librorum Prohibitorum, which was an index of books banned by the Catholic Church. The section also discusses the physical alteration of texts in order to make them comply with the prohibitions of the Catholic Church as well as texts subjected to various levels of legal and moral scrutiny as late as in the twentieth century. The eleventh and final section deals with the physical nature of books and how it relates to the perception of its' readers. This section suggests that the design and arrangement of texts directly affects the interaction with the reader. The examples presented here include books with interactive inserts, books with commentary in the margins suggesting how the reader might interpret the text, and books with empty margins for the readers to add to the text and make their own interpretation. The introduction of computers and the Internet poses a whole new way of looking at texts.

As shown in this site, it's important to remember that texts are not fixed, rather they can take the form of various shapes, sizes, and materials. They have the ability to communicate the past and the present while preserving for the future. Books speak volumes of the cultures they were created in and for. They contain a direct relationship with their readers regardless of how they might be interpreted.

Part II

This site is very significant in understanding books and the studies of the written texts. I have always been fascinated with history and this site is the next best thing to visiting a museum with an exhibit to on the history of texts. At first glance, the site does a great job of capturing one's attention with its brilliant color background choice. The layout of the site allows for the relative ease of navigating through it. The sections of the various topics are clearly presented in a map of sorts on the first page. The introduction is concise in its mission and the sections that follow fulfill the goal the site sets out to accomplish. Furthermore, each section has its own introduction followed by sub-sections with illustrations and various examples of the topic at hand. Captions are provided for each image giving a description, a date, and their significance to what is being discussed. One may even choose to enlarge the images for a better view with a simple click of the mouse.

The information presented in this site is as reliable and objective as may be. There are two main authors for this site, however its contents are part of The Division of Rare and Manuscript Collection belonging to Cornell University and its library systems. The site is produced in a collaborated effort between Cornell University, Ithaca College, and Binghamton University for educational and research purposes. A link is provided to Cornell University's Library dealing with The Division of Rare and Manuscript Collection, or RMC. Upon entering the link one is provided with all sorts of information alluding to the authenticity of the site and the qualifications of the people involved in making the site possible. The domain of the site, edu, also suggests some validity in its educational quality. If that is not enough, one may choose to directly contact the RMC through the phone numbers or e-mail addresses provided. Visiting the collection in person is also a possibility as a physical address with a link to a map is provided as well.

The site is professionally done, current, and easily accessible. It is very informative and viable in its presentation and can definitely be used to research and learn about the study of books and texts. I would definitely recommend that all members of the class view this site as I found it very relevant to the topics we have been discussing in class. It illuminates the study of the written word by taking the observer through a journey in history discovering the various forms of texts throughout time.

Folktales of the Middle East: A Long Response to a Comment/Question

I have not written down any of the stories told to me on that trip, but now that you mention it, I have gained a new found desire to do so. I think it would be very gratifying to at least note down some of it and revisit it from time to time in order to reflect or maybe even expand on it. I have, however, engaged in conversation with both my parents in order to refresh my memory on the vast amount of information I encountered on that eye opening trip. Now that I think about it, it definitely would make for a great project that would be a source of much personal satisfaction and pride. It would be something that would connect me with my history, learn about my past and keep in a family archive of sorts to pass on to future generations in my family. In an ideal world, where I can devote that much time to doing something of that magnitude, such a project would be of great interest to me.

See what you started!

Anyways, back to the subject at hand. To answer your question, I do know some Syrian folktales. Some of the tales are derived from the French peasant tales with some modifications made to fit the norms and the culture of the region. Other tales, as far as I know or was able to confirm, are indigenous to the region.

As a child growing up between two countries, Syria and Algeria, I encountered folktales in two forms. One way, was through hearing them through word of mouth from my grandmothers and my aunts, or orally. The other, was through reading the tales in children's books in Arabic. I recall reading such stories as Little Red Riding Hood, Hansel and Gretel, Cinderella, Jack and the Beanstalk, and Rapunzel. For the most part, the titles of these tales were the same as in Cinderella, but in others, the titles were altered but still followed a similar storyline. Little Red Riding Hood, for example, was known as Leila and the Wolf. In fact, the theme of the wolf was followed in many a storyline. As in the European versions, these stories were meant to teach children the do's and don’ts of growing up and being cautious with strangers. One version in particular, the wolf appears at the door of the house where the kids are home alone and uses trickery and manipulation like altering his voice to sound like the parents so the children let him in. When his attempt fails, the wolf then tries to get in through windows or even a chimney but to no avail because the children are always a step ahead of him and outsmart him. The wolf is then carried away, usually in a humorous manner, and the children are rewarded for handling the situation wisely and bravely. The outcome didn't always go so well for the children. The wolf in some versions would get the best out of the kids and ends up eating or killing them. This of course would depend on the source telling the story.

I have also encountered folktales, of which I have no evidence to the contrary, that originated in the Middle East. I'm hesitant to label them as Syrian folktales because the national boundaries of that region were not always defined so clearly throughout history. A series of folktales that I recall being exposed to as a child, were those of Al-shatter Hassan or "valiant Hassan". These tales possessed themes and motifs dealing with bravery, courage, love, and always behaving ethically and morally. Hassan was the type of hero boys wanted to be like and girls dreamed of being with. The storyline of his adventures normally consisted of him traveling to different lands, fighting off bandits and unjust institutions of power to defend his home, his people, and to rescue his love, who seemed to always be kidnapped. Needless to say, his tales were for the purpose of promoting chivalry, courage, honesty, and fighting of evil. Villains would take on different identities depending on the era or setting in which these stories were told. In the mid nineteenth and well into the twentieth century, these villains took on the identities of the British and French colonizers. The tales I was exposed to as a child it was the Israelis who sometimes took on that role. It's important to note that I said Israelis and not Jews. As I see it now, the conflict is a national one dealing with land and the right to exist. It's not about anti-Semitism or the right to worship, at least not for me. I don't always feel that distinction is made and it ought to be noted.

On a lighter note, other folktales that were a part of my childhood were those of Hammal Tizo Bil-salleh. Translated this means, "He who carries his Ass in a Basket". These stories depicted a monster like creature resembling a donkey who walked around carrying his derriere in a basket scaring children and committing unfavorable acts. These stories would scare children because of the creature's hideous appearance and unpleasant demeanor. The tales also had the function of amusing adults because they were full of anecdotes as well as material not suitable for children. Of course that doesn't mean the person telling the stories used any discretion and cleaned up the material if children were present while the tale was being told. This wasn't very different from the oral traditions and customs of European peasant lore.

In conclusion, I want to make a distinction by stating that the stories my grandfather shared with me were not the same stories I shared with you here dealing with my experiences with folklore in and of the region. The stories my grandfather shared with me were actual accounts of things that happened during his lifetime since his birth in 1926 in the vicinity of the Golan Heights in southwestern Syria. The accounts he shared with me were from his childhood until today. He told me stories of his army days and being stationed on the Syria/Turkey border in the mid to late 1940's as well as his work in the police force in Daraa, the city where my parents and I were born. Also of his days working for the Department of Agriculture and living through decade after decade of conflict and instability in the part of the world that is the cradle of civilization. Those are the stories that I would be interested in documenting because they are a link to my past.



http://www.middle-east-map.com/

http://nabataea.net/generalmap.html



The Golan Heights, July 2007.
(The tree line in the distance across the valley and beyond is Israeli ocuppied land)

The Place Of Orality In Our History

In the summer of 2007, I took a trip back to my homeland of Syria. It was my first trip back in twenty years almost to the date. Although I had ambitions of site seeing and visiting various regions and neighboring countries, I found myself, except for a couple trips to Damascus, staying in my town of Daraa and absorbing all I can from its rich history and its people as well as my family. My grandfather, who I got to really know, told me some stories that dated back to the 1930's, through World War II, post war Syria, the Arab/Israeli conflict, and other accounts of everyday life and how it changed throughout the decades. It was truly a remarkable experience and what was even more remarkable is the way he told me the stories. He told them with such enthusiasm and attention that even the most minute detail was not even missed. I felt that I was in the middle of a history lesson. Better yet, some of his accounts contradicted some of the things I have learned in history books.

What does all this have to do with anything?

Two things. One, history is written by those who have something to gain by depicting it their way and is completely biased. And second, the importance of orality and oral culture is as vital in understanding our past as any written document or text.

In their essays, Robert Darton and Lawrence W. Levine, give an insight into the lives of French peasants and North American slaves by studying their respective oral cultures. The tales examined by Darton and Levine are not quite the same type of stories or accounts my grandfather shared with me. The two essays dealt more with folk tales that depicted everyday life, the construction of the world, and ways of coping with it. Darton refers to the "staying power" of such tales asserting that, "folktales are historical documents. They have evolved over many centuries and have taken different turns in different cultural traditions." Any attempt to dismiss the value these tales as insignificant in historical value takes away from the historical significance of those oppressed. Although history is written by those who have means and power to write it, a history that does not include the story of all people everywhere is not a complete history.

On one level or another, I think it's easier to view history as a written record. Therefore, oral traditions and oral cultures can be dismissed as primitive and inarticulate simply because they are not written down. Even though the tales are subject to modification and changes as they are transferred from culture to culture throughout centuries, the main idea is still there. And that idea is that there was a struggle for survival amongst those who told and retold the tales. Telling these tales served as a coping mechanism as well as provided hope for a better life. Even more, these tales told of their story, and that is just as an important part of history as any.

The Culture Of Manuscripts

I never realized the degree of importance of manuscripts and the degree of widespread popularity manuscript culture had, particularly in seventeenth century England. Or maybe I simply didn't give it much thought. In a very enlightening talk, one way Peter Beal described manuscript culture of the time as possessing an "army of scribes and scriveners". It provided employment to many and in addition to being a part of everyday life it involved the networking of those involved in theatre from owners, to managers, to actors, to playwrights, and more. Manuscript studies are vital in understanding theatre history, however, they are not limited to the culture of the theatre nor just the seventeenth century, although that seems to be the time it gained much popularity. In addition to Elizabethan times, manuscripts were a big part of the Jacobean as well as the Caroline periods.

Manuscripts encompassed speeches, letters, deeds, receipts, contracts, translations, prayers, and literary works of all sorts. Studying them provides tangible evidence and substantial proof for documenting history in general. They provide a first hand account of everyday life by providing insight to such things as mannerisms of people at court, to how much suffering the plague brought forth, to documents that may have changed the course of history.

Now that I think about it, particularly from a literary point of view, what better way to get into an author's head and fully comprehend the train of though he or she might had followed in composing their texts than by exposing oneself to their primary work, particularly their manuscripts. Advances in technology have made it possible to be able to view manuscripts through digital mediums since viewing the original is not a commonly feasible option. The aesthetics of feeling, seeing, and even smelling the original manuscript might be taken out of the experience, but at least a copy of the manuscripts can still be studied just as deeply.

The Tool That Is The Book

The truth of the matter is, although always surrounded by books, not until entering this class have I given this much thought into understanding the concept of the book. Understanding and grasping a concept, that may or may not even be a discipline, of book history, might prove to be very elusive. Leslie Howsam, in her work, Old Books & New Histories, opened up new ways for me to think about books. Prior to that, I always thought of books as either ways to access information and knowledge, to open up worlds that I don't have to necessarily have to jump on a plane to see, to read critically for the purpose of education, or simply for leisure reading. However, as pointed out by Howsam, books are much more than that. They are both complex as well as complicated, they have held many forms through out history or periodization, they infuse other disciplines and cultures for the sake of identifying what it is to be a book.

In Old Books and New Histories, we are introduced to new ways of thinking about books. The reader encounters ways of identifying the book that include artefact, transaction, vehicle, and commodity. The term that I found more interesting is, tool. While brainstorming in class last week, we described a tool as something that changes or transforms life. It was also added that a tool might be something that encourages change and it may be neither a progression or a devolution. Being a practical person, viewing books as tools but not limiting them to that definition, helps me understand the role that they play in our culture.

Marshall McLuhan introduces the concept of "print culture" as a way of looking at books as a new invention and ties in cultural changes of a period of time. He asserts that although the mediums of which books have taken on different forms have been altered throughout history, the message is still the same. This is reassuring considering the introduction of the internet and its many advances when it comes to the book and the role that it plays. Peter Burke adds that it is more realistic to view print as a, "...catalyst, assisting in social changes rather than originating them". The book as a cultural transaction, communicates a great deal in the advances of mankind. As a consumer of the book and a lover of history and other cultures, it is the term "cultural transaction" that I would like to explore further as this class progresses.